センは社会的選択の理論と厚生経済学╱福祉の経済学の世界的な権威で、開発経済学やジェンダー研究でも良く知られています。よくセンが著書など(Development as Freedom 8ページ。Identity and Violence170ページ。インターネット上で読める下の自叙伝)で何度も触れている彼の子供時代の体験について紹介しましょう。
さて、ケイパビリティ・アプローチの始まりに戻りましょう。事の始まりは、アマルティア・センが開発途上国の経済について研究するための国連大学の研究・教育機関であるthe World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER、本部はヘルシンキ)に赴任していた1980年代半ばのことです(Richardson, 2000)。
功利主義がなおも支配的な中で、センは「国の経済成長はもちろん重要であるが、財や収入の多さで社会の豊かさ、発展度、暮らしの質の高さは測定できないし、国民が幸福であるとも限らない」 「人の幸福こそが、かけがいのない最大の目的で、経済発展や効率性、資産や富はその単なる手段にすぎない。だが現実には、この目的と手段が往々にして逆に誤解されている」とけれん味なく経済合理主義を批判しています。では国際開発でどのような基本理念や尺度や指標が大事か。つまり何の平等実現に向けた取り組みが必要か、という問いへのセンの答えは、「〇〇〇できる。〇〇〇である」という自由や能力の平等性、ケイパビリティの平等性(the equality of basic capabilities)でした。国際的な討論の場で、センはケイパビリティという概念と倫理論を前面に押し出すことに、成功します。それまで支配的だった経済成長重視から人間を中心におく開発へと、転換するきっかけになりました。
センのケイパビリティ理論が、「世界で最も住みやすい国」の順位づけで知られる「人間開発報告書」の哲学的な基盤になったことは、皆さんもご存知でしょう。UNDPの「人間開発報告書」創刊20周年を記念して、2010年ケンブリッジで開かれたワークショップで、この報告書にまつわる逸話が紹介されました。1990-1995年までの人間開発報告書の執筆責任者は、センのケンブリッジ大学時代からの学友で、生涯の友でもあったマブーブル・ハック(Mahbub ul Haq1934年〜1998年。パキスタン人の経済学者)でした。ハック氏は数字で示すには限界があるが、GDPのように一目瞭然で分かりやすく、それと同じくらい下品な(!)な国の発展度合いを示す目安をつくる必要があると、あまり気の進まなかったセンを説得し、国民生活の豊かさを示す指数を開発したということでした。その後、この指数はさまざまな批判(例1.指数の代表性、妥当性など。指標が大雑把すぎる。例2.何の権限があって国連が国の順位付けをするのかなど)を受けるわけですが。その作成には、経済成長率だけでは国民の暮らしの質の高さは実現できないことを啓発するという、政治的意図があった訳です。
Alkire, S. (2005). Why the Capability Approach?. Journal of Human Development, 6(1), 115-133.
Alkire, S. (2008). The Capability Approach to the Quality of Life. Background report prepared for the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress (p. 22). Paris.
Comim, F. (2008). Measuring Capabilities. In F. Comim, M. Qizilbash, & S. Alkire (Eds.), The capability approach: Concepts, Measures and Applications (1st ed., pp. 157-200). Cambridge University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2000). Women and Human Development: The capabilities approach (First edit., p. 334). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pogge, T. W. (2002). Can the Capability Approach be Justified? Philosophical Topics, 30(2), 167-228.
Richardson, H. S. (2000). Some limitations of Nussbaumʼs Capabilities. Quinnipiac Law Review, 19, 309-332.
Robeyns, I. (2005). The Capability Approach: a Theoretical Survey. Journal of Human Development, 6(1), 93-114.
Sen, A. K. (1980). Equality of What? In A. K. Sen (1982) (Ed.), Choice, Welfare and Measurement. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Sen, A. K. (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sen, A. K. (2005). Human Rights and Capabilities. Journal of Human Development, 6(2), 151-166.
Sen, A. K. (2007). Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny. Penguin.
Sen, A. K. (2009). The Idea of Justice. Belknap Press.
Okinawa 2 (I love Okinawa)
I visited Okinawa last month. Okinawa hosts 74 % of the U.S. bases on 0.6 % of the land. Despite overwhelming opposition, the Japanese government is taking the lead in efforts to build a new U.S. military base in Henoko Bay, emphasizing the deterrence value of the U.S. bases in Japan. Our policy makers want to proceed with the construction "shuku shuku to (calmly and solemnly)."
It is shockingly mindless and undemocratic to disregard the Okinawans' will. Here are some of useful websites on anti-U.S. base acitivities and protests (see the Japanese version – four of eleven sites are in English).
辺野古(新基地阻止)基金
[[http:tamutamu2011.kuronowish.com/sosikikin.htm|Tamu Tamu @ Kuro no wish]]
Economics of U.S. base redevelopment sway Okinawa mindset
[[http:www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/05/17/national/politics-diplomacy/economics-u-s-base-redevelopment-sway-okinawa-mindset/#.VWg8NFIppf6|Japan Times Journal]]
Looking at Flaws in the Henoko Landfill Permit Process from the Standpoint of the Right to Self-determination
Kitano Takeshi’s Elementary Schools and Japanese Schools in Benin
About three months ago, I wrote a blog article on the children orphaned by the AIDS epidemic in Malawi and the importance of education as a critical instrument for social and economic development (or human development). Admittedly, what I wrote may be too crazy or too utopian to be realized.
But, we humans sometimes think alike. By chance, I learned about a Japanese guy who has already put the similar ideas into practice. That is Mr. Takeshi Kitano (Beat Takeshi)! What?! Is he an activist beside being a filmmaker and a comedian? According to these Youtube, Takeshi Kitano used to have a TV show called “This is what is strange about the Japanese people.” A hundred foreigners living in Japan were invited to voice their observations about weird and negative aspects of Nihon. One of the guests was Mr. Zomahoun Idossou Rufin (known as Zomahon), from the Republic of Benin in West Africa.
That was how Zomahon met Takeshi twelve years ago or so. With the help of Takeshi, Zomahon built four schools in his country including Takeshi’s Elementary School and Takeshi Japanese School.
In the school lunch program in Benin, according to Takeshi, it costs 25 yens (about 25 cents in the USA) and there are kids who can afford it and those who cannot afford it. “It is cruel that those kids have to watch the others eating.” So, they have established a sort of child sponsorship. Becoming a sponsor, a supporter in Japan receives a photograph of the child and vice versa, and that’s how they make a bond of friendship.
In their elementary schools, they provide free education and free lunch for kids. They also help the local people to grow agricultural products. Among the graduates from these schools, those who have mastered the language are sent to Japan, trained to be medical doctors and other professionals, and they work in Japan for certain years. They eventually return to Benin and work for their country.
"Suppose, some kids succeed in graduating from universities and become important one day. It is cool if s/he visits Japan to meet a person who has treated to lunches, isn't it?,” Beat Takeshi remarks.
In Youtube, you will see that some Beninese graduates prostrate themselves on the ground to show their gratitude. Humble Takeshi seems to get self-conscious and in order to hide that, he makes a joke, “Zomahon sometimes does the same thing when we meet. And, it makes me look bad like a bully!”
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